The Man Behind the Empire: Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan was born between 1155 and 1167 A.D.in Deluun Boldog, in the steppes near the upper Onon River in Mongolia. First called Temuchin, he was the oldest son of Esuuhei, the grandson of Khabul Khan, the leader of a Mongol clan called the Hamag. The Mongol clans fought amongst each other. Genghis Khan’s father, Yisugei, was killed by a rival clan and his family became outcasts. Temuchin married Borte, who is captured by the Merkit clan. Temuchin led his allies to rescue his bride. Temuchin was successful and began to attract followers. Temuchin earned the title “Khan” when he became leader of his clan. The title of Chinggis Khaan was given to Temuchin when he united the Mongolian clans into an empire in 1206. Leadership was not hereditary. Genghis Khan won leadership through his own ingenuity and strength and by rewarding loyal followers and severely punishing disloyal ones. Genghis Khan would destroy those who opposed him and sparing those who surrendered and paid tribute.
The Mongols relied heavily on trade for metal tools and weapons, which they could not manufacture themselves as nomads. The Qin dynasty of northern China refused trade with the Mongols, which prompted Genghis Khan to lead the clans to war against the Chinese. Victorious against the Qin, Genghis Khan continued to lead his people to conquer lands from the Aral Sea to the Yellow Sea and included present-day Mongolia, China, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Russia, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, South and North Korea, and Kuwait.
In addition to military conquest, Genghis Khan’s legacy extended to revolutionizing the Mongol culture. Genghis Khan ordered a Naiman captive to explain the Uighur written language and developed a written script for the Mongol language. Acquiring writing allowed the Mongols to record laws, compiled in a system called the Yasa. The Mongols also wrote down an account of their history and culture, called The Secret History of the Mongols. Genghis Khan was also responsible for the establishment of a messenger system, postal roads, and safe trade routes. Before he died in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the empire among his sons. Kubilai Khan, Ghengis Khan’s grandson, was the first emperor of the Yuan Dynasty. The Golden Horde, the western part of the empire, invaded Russia and eastern Europe. The invasions of the Mongols into Europe and China prompted the construction of the Great Wall of China and the issue of papal envoys to the Mongols. Genghis Khan’s successors extended the empire to the Volga and the Black Sea, and unified China.
An Overview of Mongol History
In the 12th century, various tribes inhabited the steppes of present-day Mongolia, relying on horses, oxen, camels, and sheep for food, transportation, clothing, and shelter because farming was difficult in the dry steppes. Reliance on grazing animals supported the tribes’ nomadic lifestyle. The Mongols, one of these tribes, became dominant around the middle of the 12th century and formed the Mongol Kingdom. The Mongols defeated or subjugated neighboring tribes and the Qin dynasty of northern China. By 1160, 30 years after their ascendance, the Mongols were defeated by the Tartars. The Mongol tribe disintegrated into warring clans.
Yesugei, descendant of a chieftan (Khan) of the Mongol kingdom, was the father of Temuchin (Genghis Khan). After his father’s death, the clan deserted Genghis Khan and his family. Genghis Khan’s bride was captured by a rival clan. Genghis Khan called on an ally of his father’s and defeated the Merkit clan. Genghis Khan continued to defeat his enemies with the help of his allies. By 1204, Genghis Khan united the Mongol clans and defeated enemy clans. In 1206, Genghis Khan received the title of Chinggis Khaan at an assembly of clans.
Genghis Khan formed a military to unite the clans and subjugated peoples of the empire. Divided into smaller units, Genghis Khan’s military was well-trained, well-disciplined, and able to be deployed quickly and efficiently for conquest. Genghis Khan led his armies to conquer the Xi Xia Empire of western China and forced them to pay tribute. The Mongol armies then conquered the Qin Empire of northern China, the Kara Khitai Empire,and the Kwarazm-Shah Empire. When the conquered enemies stopped paying tribute, Genghis Khan and his armies moved to conquer instead of subdue them. Genghis Khan chose his son Ogedei as successor before he died in 1227. Ogedei became the Khakhan, or chief of chiefs, and ruled over the four provinces or ulus of the empire. Each of these ulus was ruled by one of Genghis Khan’s sons. Under Ogedei, the Mongol Empire completed the conquest of the Kwarazem Empire and the Qin Empire. The Mongols also crossed the Volga River into Russia and captured Moscow and Kiev and defeated the Hungarians.
After Ogedei’s death, the leaders of the four ulus consolidated their inherited and conquered lands into kingdoms. These khanates remained subject to the Great Khan and the Mongol Empire, but were effectively independent. Future Great Khans conquered the Song Empire of China, Persia, and Mosopotamia. Kubilai Khan became Great Khan in 1259 and a civil war ensued between him and his brother, Ariq Boke. The civil war divided the empire between east and west. With the conquest of the Song Empire, the Mongol Empire reached its height. Kubilai Khan established himself in China and adopted the settled life of a Chinese emperor.After Kubilai Khan’s death in 1294, the individual khanates lost the last of their coherence and unity. The empire began to crumble as each khanate was defeated by enemies and rivals.
Timeline of Mongol History
Approx 1167: Temuchin born.
1206: Temuchin unites the Mongols and becomes Chinggis Khaan.
1207-15: Genghis Khan defeats the Xi Xia Empire and the Qin Empire.
1226-1233: Genghis Khan conquers territory in northern China and Persia.
1227: Genghis Khan dies and his son Ogdei suceeds him.
1237-40: Genghis Khan’s grandson Batu conquers Russia and establishes his own khanate, the Golden Horde.
1241: Batu conquers Hungary and withdraws from Europe.
1244: Batu’s general, Subotai, conquers Anatolia.
1251: Mangu Khan conquers Persia, Syria, and Mosopotamia
1258: Mangu Khan sacks Baghdad, the Seljuk capital.
1260: Fatimid Mamluks defeat the Mongols at Ain Jalut in Syria.
1260: Kubilai Khan becomes the Great Khan.
1275-95: Marco Polo visits Mongol Empire
1279: Mongol Empire defeats the southern Chinese Song Empire and establish the Yuan dynasty.
1294: Kubilai Khan dies.
1295: Hung Wu leads rebellion that ends the Yuan Dynasty and founds the Ming Dynasty.
Maps of the Mongol Empire
